Enhancing Security with Manifest Attributes

The following JAR file manifest attributes are available to help ensure the security of your applet or Java Web Start application:

• The Permissions attribute is used to ensure that the application requests only the level of permissions that is specified in the applet tag or JNLP file used to invoke the application. Use this attribute to help prevent someone from re-deploying an application that is signed with your certificate and running it at a different privilege level.
  This attribute is required in the main JAR file when the Security Level slider in the Java Control panel is set to Very High or High. See Permissions Attribute in the Java RIA Development and Deployment Guide for more information.
• The Codebase attribute is used to ensure that the code base of the JAR file is restricted to specific domains. Use this attribute to prevent someone from re-deploying your application on another website for malicious purposes. See Codebase Attribute in the Java RIA Development and Deployment Guide for more information.
• The Application-Name attribute is used to provide the title that is shown in the security prompts for signed applications. See Application-Name Attribute in the Java RIA Development and Deployment Guide for more information.
• The Application-Library-Allowable-Codebase attribute is used to identify the locations where your application is expected to be found. Use this attribute to reduce the number of locations shown in the security prompt when the JAR file is in a different location than the JNLP file or the HTML page. See Application-Library-Allowable-Codebase Attribute in the Java RIA Development and Deployment Guide for more information.
• The Caller-Allowable-Codebase attribute is used to identify the domains from which JavaScript code can make calls to your application. Use this attribute to prevent unknown JavaScript code from accessing your application. See Caller-Allowable-Codebase Attribute in the Java RIA Development and Deployment Guide for more information.
• The Trusted-Only attribute is used to prevent untrusted components from being loaded. See Trusted-Only Attribute in the Java RIA Development and Deployment Guide for more information.
• The Trusted-Library attribute is used to allow calls between privileged Java code and sandbox Java code without prompting the user for permission. See Trusted-Library Attribute in the Java RIA Development and Deployment Guide for more information.

Scripts to take multiple thread dump after regular interval - Weblogic

Its always recommended to take multiple thread dumps at close intervals (10 or 20 dumps at 10-30 seconds intervals). Why? A thread dump is a snapshot of threads in execution or various states. Taking multiple thread dumps allows us to peek into the threads as they continue execution.

In order take thread dumps use following script, name this scripts to some values, let's say we name it as td_take.sh and it is intended to make the task of collecting thread dumps easier. Its usage is quite simply and can be seen by running the script with no arguments, e.g.: ./td_take.sh

1. Start the relevant Server the usual way.
2. When the issue occurs, use td_take.sh to take thread dumps 10-20 seconds apart.
3. After the Server has started completely, hung or crashed, provide us with the following:

• Log file for server, usually located at: <WLS_HOME>/user_projects/domains/<domain_name>/servers/<server_name>/logs
• Standard output file (.out) for server, usually located at: <WLS_HOME>/user_projects/domains/<domain_name>/servers/<server_name>/logs
• If using the "nohup" command to start the server than the nohup.out, otherwise discard this last file.

= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =

 #!/bin/sh

if [ $# -le 1 ]
then
    echo
    echo "Usage:"
    echo "To take threads indefinitely:"
    echo "    ./tdtake.sh <PID> <interval_in_seconds>"
    echo "To take a specific amount of threads:"
    echo "    ./tdtake.sh <PID> <interval_in_seconds> <amount_of_threads>
"
    echo "e.g.: ./tdtake.sh 512 10 5"
    echo "will take 5 thread dumps, 10 seconds apart each for process ID 512.
"

    exit 0
fi

function take_dumps {
    kill -3 $1
    echo Waiting $2 seconds...
    sleep $2
}

if [ -z $3 ]
then
    echo "Taking thread dumps indefinitely."
    echo "Press <Ctrl>+C to terminate."
    i=1
    while [ $i -gt 0 ]
    do
        echo Taking thread dump $i
        take_dumps $1 $2
        i=`expr $i + 1`
    done
else
    echo "Taking a total of $3 threads."
    echo "Press <Ctrl>+C to terminate before completion."
    i=1
    while [ $i -le $3 ]
    do
        echo Taking thread dump $i
        take_dumps $1 $2
        i=`expr $i + 1`
    done
fi

= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =

Understanding US Debt Ceiling Standoff

Congress has until Aug. 2 to raise the federal borrowing limit or the government will run out of money and possibly default on its debt. House Republicans say they won't raise the debt limit without equal spending cuts. President Barack Obama and Democrats insist that higher revenues must be included.


Thursday's developments: House Speaker John Boehner predicted a majority of House Republicans will end up supporting some kind of compromise to avoid a government default. Democrats insisted higher tax revenue be part of a deal. And both sides disputed reports that Obama and Boehner were near an agreement on a grand bargain. Hopes for a compromise ran into renewed resistance from Republicans opposed to higher taxes and Democrats hesitant to cut Medicare and other benefit programs. A new backup plan that would cut spending by $1 trillion or slightly more immediately and raise the debt limit by a similar amount appeared to be gaining momentum.


Markets react: News that European leaders were drawing up a new rescue plan for Greece and taking a broader approach to dealing with Europe's debt troubles drove markets higher as the Dow rose 152 points. Concerns about raising the U.S. debt limit seemed overshadowed by the news from Europe.


What's Next: The GOP's "cut, cap and balance" plan that passed the House faces likely rejection by the Democratic-controlled Senate on Friday or Saturday, to be followed by an unveiling of a fallback plan crafted by Senate Majority Leader Harry Reid and Senate Republican leader Mitch McConnell to allow Obama to raise the debt ceiling. A separate bipartisan deficit-reduction plan that drew support from Republican senators earlier in the week appeared to be running into obstacles — related to revenue measures.


Some background:


Q: What is the debt ceiling?
A) It's a legal limit on how much debt the government can accumulate. The government takes on debt two ways: It borrows money from investors by issuing Treasury bonds, and it borrows from itself, mostly from the Social Security trust fund, which comes from payroll taxes. Congress created the debt limit in 1917. It's unique to the United States. Most countries let their debts rise automatically when government spending outpaces tax revenue. Congress has increased the debt limit 10 times since 2001.


Q: What is the federal deficit, and how does it differ from the debt?
A) The deficit is how much government spending exceeds tax revenue during a year. Last year, the deficit was $1.29 trillion. The debt is the sum of deficits past and present. Right now, the national debt totals $14.3 trillion — a ceiling set in 2010.


Q: Why is the prospect of not raising the debt ceiling so worrisome?
A) The government now borrows more than 40 cents of each dollar it spends. If the debt ceiling does not rise, the government would need to choose what to pay and what not, including benefits like Social Security, wages for the military or other bills. It also might delay interest payments on Treasury bonds. Any default could lead to financial panic weakening the country's credit rating, the dollar and the already hobbled economy. Interest rates would likely rise, increasing the cost of borrowing for the government and ordinary Americans.


Q: Who holds the $14.3 trillion in outstanding U.S. debt?
A) The U.S. government owes itself $4.6 trillion, mostly borrowed from Social Security revenues. The remaining $9.7 trillion is owed to investors in Treasury securities — banks, pension funds, individual investors, state and local governments and foreign investors and governments. Nearly half of that — $4.5 trillion — is held by foreigners including China with $1.15 trillion and Japan with $907 billion.


Q: How did the debt grow from $5.8 trillion in 2001 to its current $14.3 trillion?
A) The biggest contributors to the nearly $9 trillion increase over a decade were:

• 2001 and 2003 tax cuts under President George W. Bush: $1.6 trillion.
• Additional interest costs: $1.4 trillion.
• Wars in Iraq and Afghanistan: $1.3 trillion.
• Economic stimulus package under Obama: $800 billion.
• 2010 tax cuts, a compromise by Obama and Republicans that extended jobless benefits and cut payroll taxes: $400 billion.
• 2003 creation of Medicare's prescription drug benefit: $300 billion.
• 2008 financial industry bailout: $200 billion.
• Hundreds of billions less in revenue than expected since the Great Recession began in December 2007.
• Other spending increases in domestic, farm and defense programs, adding lesser amounts.

Lokpal Bill an Analysis

Lokpal Bill an Analysis

“Corruption will be out one day, however much one may try to conceal it: and the public can as its right and duty, in every case of justifiable suspicion, call its servants to strict account, dismiss them, sue them in a law court, or appoint an arbitrator or inspector to scrutinize their conduct, as it likes.”

-Mahatma Gandhi (1928)

Introduction:

India is a country where honesty and integrity in public and private life have been glorified and upheld in great epics such as the Vedas, Upanishads and in the books and practices of every religion practiced here.

Yet, India today is one of the most corrupt countries in the world.

Bringing public servants under a scanner which makes them strictly accountable is the start of a movement against corruption in India. And one significant step in attacking the specter of corruption in India will be the implementation of the lok pal bill.

The Indian Lokpal is synonymous to the institution of Ombudsman existing in the Scandinavian countries. The office of the ombudsman originated in Sweden in 1809 A.D., and adopted eventually by many nations 'as a bulwark of democratic government against the tyranny of officialdom'. Ombudsman is a Swedish word that stands for "an officer appointed by the legislature to handle complaints against administrative and judicial action. Traditionally the ombudsman is appointed based on unanimity among all political parties supporting the proposal. The incumbent, though appointed by the legislature, is an independent functionary – independent of all the three organs of the state, but reports to the legislature. The Ombudsman can act both on the basis of complaints made by citizens, or suo moto. She/he can look into allegations of corruption as well as mal-administration.

The functionary is called by different names in different countries; its power and functions also vary. In the Scandinavian countries2 (Sweden, Denmark, Finland, Norway) he is called the 'Ombudsman'. He can take cognizance of the citizens' grievance by either directly receiving complaints from the public or suo moto on the basis of information provided by the interested persons, or from newspapers, etc. However, in the U.K. the functionary - known as the Parliamentary Commissioner - can receive complains only through members of parliament.

The ombudsmen can investigate a complaint by themselves or through any public or private agency. After investigation, in Sweden and Finland, the Ombudsman has the power to prosecute erring public servants; whereas in Denmark, he can only order prosecution. However, the power of prosecution is very rarely used. The strength of the ombudsman lies in the publicity attached to the office, and the negative view that attaches itself to all that the office scrutinizes. In Sweden and Finland, ombudsmen can also supervise the courts. In other countries, their authority is only over the non-judicial public servants. In almost all the cases they deal with complaints relating to both corruption and mal-administration.

History:
The misdeeds committed during the Emergency remind us of the necessity of including the PM within the purview of the Lokpal.

The basic idea of the Lok Pal is borrowed from the office of ombudsman, which has played an effective role in checking corruption and wrong-doing in Scandinavian and other nations. In early 1960s, mounting corruption in public administration set the winds blowing in favor of an Ombudsman in India too.

The Administrative Reforms Commission (ARC) set up in 1966 recommended the constitution of a two-tier machinery - of a Lokpal at the Centre, and Lokayukt(a)s in the states.4 The ARC while recommending the constitution of Lokpal was convinced that such an institution was justified not only for removing the sense of injustice from the minds of adversely affected citizens but also necessary to instill public confidence in the efficiency of administrative machinery. Following this, the Lokpal Bill was for the first time presented during the fourth Lok Sabha in 1968, and was passed there in 1969.


However, while it was pending in the Rajya Sabha, the Lok Sabha was dissolved, that result the first death of the bill. The bill was revived in 1971, 1977, 1985, 1989, 1996, 1998, 2001 and 2005 and most recently in 2008.


Each time, after the bill was introduced to the house, it was referred to some committee for improvements - a joint committee of parliament, or a departmental standing committee of the Home Ministry - and before the government could take a final stand on the issue the house was dissolved.


There are as many as 17 states where the institution of Lokayukta has been constituted, beginning with Orissa in 1971. However the power, function and jurisdiction of Lokayuktas are not uniform in the country.


In some states it has been applicable to all the elected representatives including the CM. In some other legislators have been deliberately kept out of this purview. Often, lacunae have been left in legislation creating the office, apparently to keep the elected representatives outside meaningful jurisdiction of the Lokayukta, even when the laws appear to include them.


Lokayuktas have not been provided with their independent investigative machinery making them dependent on the government agencies, which leaves enough scope for the politicians and the bureaucrats to tinker with the processes of investigation.


Objective of Bill:
The Lokpal was visualized as the watchdog institution on ministerial probity. Bradly the provisions of different bills empowered the Lokpal to investigate corruption cases against political persons at the Central level. Some important features of the Lokpal Bill have varied over the years; in its most recent avatar, the bill contains the following:

• The main objective is to provide speedy, cheaper from of justice to people.
• Members: Lokpal is to be a three member body with a chairperson who is or has been a chief
  Justice or judge of the Supreme Court; and it’s two other members who are or have been Judges / chief justices of high courts around the country.
• Appointment: The chairperson and members shall be appointed by the President by warrant under his hand and seal on the recommendation of a committee consisting of the following persons. It's not clear whether the committee has to make a unanimous decision or a majority decision will do. (a) The Vice-President (Chairman) (b) The PM (c) The Speaker of LS (d) Home Minister (e) Leader of the House, other than the house in which PM is a member. (f) Leaders of Opposition of both the houses.
• Independence of the Office: In order to ensure the independence of functioning of the august office, the following provisions have been incorporated.
• Appointment is to be made on the recommendation of a committee.
• The Lokpal is ineligible to hold any office of profit under Government of India or of any state, or similar such posts after retirement.
• Fixed tenure of three years and can be removed only on the ground of proven misbehavior or incapacity after an inquiry made by CJI and two senior most judges of SC.
• Lokpal will have its own administrative machinery for conducting investigations.
• Salary of Lokpal is to be charged on the Consolidated Fund of India.
• Jurisdiction of Lokpal:
• The central level political functionaries like the Council of Ministers including the Prime Minister, the Members of Parliament etc.
• He cannot inquire into any allegation against the PM in relation to latter's functions of national security and public order.
• Complaints of offence committed within 10 years from the date of complaint can be taken up for investigation, not beyond this period.
• Any person other than a public servant can make a complaint. The Lokpal is supposed to complete the inquiry within a period of six months. The Lokpal has the power of a civil court to summon any person or authority. After investigation, the ombudsman can only recommend actions to be taken by the competent authority. A number of safeguards have been taken to discourage false complains or complain of malafide intent.
• He can order search and seizure operations.
• He shall present annually to the President the reports of investigation and the latter with the action take report has to put it before the both houses of parliament.

 It may be noted that the Lokpal is supposed to investigate cases of corruption only, and not address himself to redressing grievances in respect of injustices and hardship caused by maladministration.


The Current Situation:
Very recently a highly discouraging phenomenon has come to light, that is, the prevalence of corruption in the subordinate courts and even in High Courts. Probably due to this, the present government has planned to bring the Judiciary within the purview of Lok pal; this is one reason why the Bill has been referred to the Group of Ministers. However given the history of Lok pal bill, there is a constant risk that the bill will simply lapse because no conclusion is reached within the life of this Lok Sabha!

The political fraternity is understandably opposed to a Lok pal, since the purported target of the Lokpal is mainly the politicians themselves. The publicly stated reason for the current delay is that some important issues are as yet unresolved.


Conclusions:
In the regular dispensation of government there are implicit and explicit ways that citizens can voice their grievances and demand change. But these are often difficult. Within administrative departments, for example, any decision of one official can be appealed to a higher official, all the way up to the head of a department. However, this mechanism has inherent flaws. Higher officers enjoy departmental fraternity with those against whom complaints are made, and both sail the same boat. Therefore their impartiality in judging appeals is always doubted. On the legislative side, an individual can approach the member representing his constituency for his demands. But given the absence of easy access of an ordinary citizen to his representative, this has more remained a myth more than reality. Among the organs of state, the Judiciary has proved itself to have highest credibility in protecting individual rights. However, due to procedural complexities involved in court cases - right from filing a case to the delivery of final verdict - there are inevitable delays of justice, which often are also denial of justice.


The existing devices for checks on elected and administrative officials have not been effective, as the growing instances of corruption cases suggest. The Central Vigilance Commission (CVC) is designed to inquire into allegations of corruption by administrative officials only. The CBI, the premier investigating agency of the country, functions under the supervision of the Ministry of Personnel, Public grievances and Pensions (under the Prime Minister) and is therefore not immune from political pressures during investigation. Indeed, the lack of independence and professionalism of CBI has been castigated by the Supreme Court often in recent times. All these have necessitated the creation of Lokpal with its own investigating team in earliest possible occasion.


Therefore, there is a need for a mechanism that would adopt very simple, independent, speedy and cheaper means of delivering justice by redressing the grievances of the people. Examples from various countries suggest that the institution of ombudsman has very successfully fought against corruption and unscrupulous administrative decisions by public servants, and acted as a real guardian of democracy and civil rights.

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11 Things to know about Anna Hazare and Jan Lok Pal Bill

Ques 1. Who is Anna Hazare?
Ans: An Ex-army man. Fought 1965 Indo-Pak War.


Ques 2. What's so special about Him?
Ans: He build a village Ralegaon Siddhi in Ahamad Nagar district, Maharashtra (India)


Ques 3. So What ?
Ans: This village is a self-sustained model village. Energy is produced in the village itself from solar power, bio-fuel and wind mills. 
In 1975, it used to be a poverty clad village. Now it is one of the richest village in India. It has become a model for self-sustained, eco-friendly & Harmonic village.


Ques 4. Okay ... ?
Ans: This guy, Anna Hazare was awarded Padma Bhushan and is a known figure for his social activities.


Ques 5. Really what he is fighting for?
Ans: He is supporting a cause, the amendment of a law to curb corruption in India.


Ques 6. How that can be possible?
Ans: He is advocating for the Bill, The Jan Lokpal Bill (The Citizen Ombudsman Bill), that will form an autonomous authority who will make politicians (ministers), beurocrats (IAS/IPS) accountable for their deeds.


Ques 7. Is it a entirely new thing right... ?
Ans: In 1972, the bill was proposed by then Law minister Mr. Shanti Bhushan, since then it has been neglected by the politicians and some are trying to change the bill to suit their theft (corruption).


Ques 8. Oh... he is going on a hunger strike for that whole thing of passing a bill !!! how can that be possible in such short span of time?
Ans: First thing he is asking for is: the government should come forward and announce that the bill is going to be passed.
Next, they make a joint committee to DRAFT the JAN LOKPAL BILL. 50% government participation and 50% public participation. Because we cannot trust the government entirely for making such a bill which does not suit them.


Ques 9. Fine what will happen when this bill is passed?
Ans: A Lokpal will be appointed at the centre. He will have an autonomous charge, say like the election commission of India. In each and every state, Lokayukta will be appointed. The job is to bring all alleged party to trial in case of corruptions within 1 year. Within 2 years, the guilty will be punished.
Not like bofors scam or Bhopal Gas Tragedy case, that has been going for last 25 years without result.


Ques 10. Is he alone? who else is there in the fight with Anna Hazare?
Ans: Baba Ramdev, Ex - IPS Kiran Bedi, Social Activist Swami Agnivesh, RTI activist Arvind Kejriwal and many more. Prominent personalities like Aamir Khan is supporting his cause.


Ques 11. Okay got it, what can i do?
Ans: At least we can spread this message.Putting status message, links, video, changing profile pics.

 OR you can send a letter / email to Prime minister, president, law and other Ministers.

• manmohan@sansad.nic.in
• pmosb@nic.in
• vmoily@kar.nic.in
• kapilsibal@hotmail.com
• samyselvi@sansad.nic.in
• presidentofindia@rb.nic.in
• hm@nic.in
• vpindia@sansad.nic.in
• supremecourt@nic.in
• secy-legal@nic.in
• secy-legislative@nic.in
• secy-mop@nic.in

At least we can support Anna Hazare and the cause for uprooting corruption from India.
At least we can hope that his Hunger Strike does not go in vain.
At least we can pray for his good health.

Whisky

Whisky (Scottish English) or whiskey (Hiberno-English) is a type of distilled alcoholic beverage made from fermented grain mash. Different grains are used for different varieties, including barley, malted barley, rye, malted rye, wheat, and maize (corn). Whisky is aged in wooden casks, made generally of white oak, except that in the United States corn whiskey need not be aged.
Whisky is a strictly regulated spirit worldwide with many competing denominations of origin and many classes and types. The typical unifying characteristics of the different classes and types are the fermentation of grains, distillation, and aging in wood. Indian whisky is an exception, where grain fermentation is not a requirement and the most common basis is fermented molasses. The requirement for aging in wood is also not entirely universal.


Etymology:
Whiskey is a shortened form of usquebaugh, which English borrowed from Goidelic languages (Irish Language uisce beatha and Scottish uisge beatha) meaning literally "water of life". It meant the same thing as the Latin aqua vītae which had been applied to distilled drinks since early 14th century. Other early spellings include usquebea (1706) and iskie bae (1583). In the Irish Annals of Clonmacnoise in 1405, the first written record of whiskey appears describing the death of a chieftain at Christmas from "taking a surfeit of aqua vitae". In Scotland, the first evidence of whisky production comes from an entry in the Exchequer Rolls for 1494 where malt is sent "To Friar John Cor, by order of the king, to make aquavitae".


History:
The art of distillation began with the Babylonians in Mesopotamia (in what is now Iraq) from at least the 2nd millennium BC, with perfumes and aromatics being distilled long before potable spirits. Distillation was brought from Africa to Europe by the Moors, and its use spread through the monasteries, largely for medicinal purposes, such as the treatment ofcolic, palsy, and smallpox.
Between 1100 and 1300, distillation spread in Ireland and Scotland, with monastic distilleries existing in Ireland in the 12th century. Since the islands had few grapes with which to make wine, barley beer was used instead, resulting in the development of whisky. In 1494, as noted above, Scotland’s Exchequer granted the malt to Friar John Cor; this was enough malt to make about 1500 bottles, so the business was apparently thriving by that time.
King James IV of Scotland (r. 1488-1513) reportedly had a great liking for Scotch whisky, and in 1506 the town of Dundee purchased a large amount of Scotch from the Guild of Surgeon Barbers, which held the monopoly on production at the time. Between 1536 and 1541, King Henry VIII of England dissolved the monasteries, sending their monks out into the general public. Whisky production moved out of a monastic setting and into personal homes and farms as newly independent monks needed to find a way to earn money for themselves.
The distillation process at the time was still in its infancy; whisky itself was imbibed at a very young age, and as a result tasted very raw and brutal compared to today’s versions. Renaissance-era whisky was also very potent and not diluted, and could even be dangerous at times. Over time, and with the happy accident of someone daring to drink from a cask which had been forgotten for several years, whisky evolved into a much smoother drink.
In 1707, the Acts of Union merged England and Scotland, and thereafter taxes on it rose dramatically.
After the English Malt Tax of 1725, most of Scotland’s distillation was either shut down or forced underground. Scotch whisky was hidden under altars, in coffins, and in any available space to avoid the governmental Excisemen. Scottish distillers, operating out of homemade stills, took to distilling their whisky at night, where the darkness would hide the smoke rising from the stills. For this reason, the drink was known as moonshine. At one point, it was estimated that over half of Scotland’s whisky output was illegal.
In America, whisky was used as currency during the American Revolution. It also was a highly coveted sundry and when an additional excise tax was levied against it, the 1794 Whiskey Rebellion took place.
In 1823, the UK passed the Excise Act, legalizing the distillation (for a fee), and this put a practical end to the large-scale production of Scottish moonshine.
In 1826 Robert Stein invented an effective continuous still, and in 1831, Aeneas Coffey refined it to create the Coffey still, allowing for cheaper and more efficient distillation of whisky. In 1850, Andrew Usher began producing a blended whisky that mixed traditional pot still whisky with that from the new Coffey still. The new distillation method was scoffed at by some Irish distillers, who clung to their traditional pot stills. Many Irish contended that the new product was, in fact, not whisky at all.
By the 1880s, the French brandy industry was devastated by the phylloxera pest that ruined much of the grape crop; as a result, whisky became the primary liquor in many markets.
During the Prohibition era lasting from 1920 to 1933 in the United States, all alcohol sales were banned in the country. However, the federal government made an exemption for whisky that was prescribed by a doctor and sold through licensed pharmacies. During this time, theWalgreens pharmacy chain grew from 20 retail stores to almost 400.


Types:

Whisky or whisky-like products are produced in most grain-growing areas. They differ in base product, alcoholic content, and quality.

• Malt (whiskey) is made primarily from malted barley.
• Grain (whiskey) is made from any type of grains.

Malts and grains are combined in various ways

• Vatted malt is blended from malt whiskies from different distilleries. If a whisky is labelled "pure malt" or just "malt" it is almost certain to be a vatted whisky. This is also sometimes labelled as "blended malt" whisky.
• Single malt whisky is malt whisky from a single distillery. However, unless the whisky is described as "single-cask" it will contain whisky from many casks, and different years, so the blender can achieve a taste recognisable as typical of the distillery. In most cases, the name of a single malt will be that of the distillery (The Glenlivet, Bushmills, Nikka), with an age statement and perhaps some indication of some special treatments such as maturation in a port wine cask.
• Blended whiskies are typically made from a mixture of malt and grain whiskies — often along with neutral spirits, caramel and flavouring. A whisky simply described as Scotch, Irish, or Canadian Whiskey is most likely to be a blend. A blend is usually from many distilleries so that the blender can produce a flavour consistent with the brand, and the brand name (e.g., Chivas Regal, Canadian Club) will usually not therefore contain the name of a distillery. Jameson Irish Whiskey is an example of an exception, as it comes from only one distillery. A mixture of malts (with no grain) from different distilleries (more usually called a vatted malt) may sometimes be referred to as a "blended malt", and a mixture of grain whiskies with no malts will sometimes carry the designation "blended grain".
• Cask strength (also known as Barrel proof) whiskies are rare, and usually only the very best whiskies are bottled in this way. They are bottled from the cask undiluted or only lightly diluted. Rather than diluting, the distiller is inviting the drinker to dilute to the level of potency most palatable (often no dilution is necessary, such is the quality of single cask whiskies).
• Single cask (also known as Single barrel) whiskies are usually bottled by specialist independent bottlers, such as Duncan Taylor, Gordon & MacPhail, and Kentucky Bourbon Distillers, amongst others. Each bottle of a single-barrel whisky is from an individual cask, and often the bottles are labeled with specific barrel and bottle numbers. The taste of such whiskies may substantially vary from cask to cask within a brand.

Whiskies do not mature in the bottle, only in the cask, so the "age" of a whisky is only the time between distillation and bottling. This reflects how much the cask has interacted with the whisky, changing its chemical makeup and taste. Whiskies that have been in bottle for many years may have a rarity value, but are not "older" and will not necessarily be "better" than a more recently made whisky matured in wood for a similar time. Beyond an age of a decade or two, additional aging in a barrel will also not necessarily make a whisky "better".

Most whiskies are sold at or near an alcoholic strength of 40% abv, which is the statutory minimum in some countries – although the strength can vary, and cask strength whisky may have as much as twice that alcohol percentage.

American Whisky:

American whiskey is distilled from a fermented mash of cereal grain. It must have the taste, aroma, and other characteristics commonly attributed to whiskey.

Some types of whiskey listed in the United States federal regulations include:

• Rye whiskey, which is made from mash that consists of at least 51% rye.
• Rye malt whiskey, which is made from mash that consists of at least 51% malted rye.
• Malt whiskey, which is made from mash that consists of at least 51% malted barley.
• Wheat whiskey, which is made from mash that consists of at least 51% wheat.
• Bourbon whiskey, which is made from mash that consists of at least 51% corn (maize).
• Corn whiskey, which is made from mash that consists of at least 80% corn (maize).

These types of whiskey must be distilled to not more than 80% alcohol by volume, and the addition of coloring, caramel and flavorings is not allowed. These types of whiskey must then be aged in charred new oak containers, except for corn whiskey. Corn whiskey does not have to be aged but, if it is aged, it must be in un-charred oak barrels or un-charred used barrels. The ageing for corn whiskey usually is brief, e.g., six months. These restrictions do not exist for some similarly-named products in some other countries, such as Canada.

If the aging for one of these types of whiskey reaches two years or beyond, the whiskey is then additionally designated as "straight" e.g., "straight rye whiskey". A whiskey that fulfills all these above requirements except that it is derived from less than 51% of any one specific type of grain can be called simply a "straight whiskey" without naming a grain.

There are also other some categories of whiskey that are recognized in the U.S. regulations, such as:

• Blended whisky, which is a mixture which contains straight whisky or a blend of straight whiskies or in combination, whiskey or neutral spirits.
• Light whisky, which is produced in the United States at more than 80% alcohol by volume and stored in used or uncharred new oak containers.
• Spirit whisky, which is a mixture of neutral spirits and at least 5% of certain stricter categories of whisky.

American blended whiskeys combine straight whiskey with grain neutral spirits (GNS), flavourings and colourings. The percentage of GNS must be disclosed on the label and may be as much at 80% on a proof gallon basis. Blended whiskey has the same alcohol content as straight whiskey but typically has a milder flavour.

Another important labeling in the marketplace is Tennessee whiskey, of which Jack Daniel's, George Dickel, and Benjamin Prichard's are the only brands currently bottled. In practice, it is essentially identical to bourbon whiskey. Tennessee whiskey is generally filtered through sugar maple charcoal, which is claimed to remove some unpleasant flavours and odours and produce a cleaner spirit. Tennessee whiskey does not actually have a legal definition in Federal regulations to mandate these characteristics, so there is no requirement for it to fulfill all of the requirements for bourbon or to be filtered in such a manner. However, the Government of the United States officially recognized Tennessee whiskey as a distinct style in 1941, and it has labeling recognition in some other countries, such as Canada and Mexico.

Australian Whisky

Australia produces a number of single malt whiskies. The whiskies being produced on the island State of Tasmania in particular are receiving global attention.

Australian whiskies are winning an increasing number of global whisky awards and medals, including for example the World Whiskies Awards and Jim Murray's Whisky Bible 'Liquid Gold Awards'.

Australian whisky distilleries, past and present, include:

• Bakery Hill;
• Booie Range Distillery - no longer operating;
• Corio Whisky Distillery - no longer operating;
• Great Southern Distilling Company (Limeburners Single Malt Whisky);
• Hellyers Road;
• Lark;
• Mackey's (still in maturation, no whisky released yet);
• Nant;
• Old Hobart Distillery (still in maturation, no whisky released yet);
• Railway Shed Timboon (John Christie's Single Malt);
• Small Concern (no longer operating);
• Samuel Smith & Son (Smith's Angaston Whisky) - no longer operating; and
• Tasmania Distillery (Sullivans Cove Single Malt Whisky).

Canadian Whisky:

Canadian whiskies are usually lighter and smoother than other whisky styles. By Canadian law, Canadian whiskies must be produced and aged in Canada, be distilled from a fermented mash of cereal grain, be aged in wood barrels (of a capacity not larger than 700 L) for not less than three years, and "possess the aroma, taste and character generally attributed to Canadian whisky". The terms "Canadian Whisky" and "Canadian Rye Whisky" are legally indistinguishable in Canada and do not require any use of rye or other specific grain in their production. In fact, the predominant grain used in making "Canadian Rye Whiskey" is corn. Canadian whiskies may contain caramel and flavouring in addition to the distilled mash spirits, and there is no maximum limit on the alcohol level of the distillation, so the bulk of the distilled content (often more than 90 percent) may be neutral spirits rather than straight whiskies.

English whiskies

Whisky production in modern England re-started in Norfolk in late 2006, and the first resulting single malt whisky was made available to the public in November 2009. This was the first English single malt in over 100 years. It was produced at St George's Distillery by the English Whisky Company. Previously Bristol and Liverpool were centres of English whisky production.

Finnish whiskies

There are two working distilleries in Finland and a third one is under construction. Whisky retail sales in Finland are controlled solely by the state alcohol monopoly Alko and advertisement of strong alcoholic beverages is banned.

German whiskies

The distillation of German-made whisky is a relatively recent phenomenon having only started in the last 30 years. The styles produced resemble those made in Ireland, Scotland and the United States: single malts, blends, and bourbon styles. There is no standard spelling of German whiskies with distilleries using both "whisky" and "whiskey" and one even using "whessky", a play on the word whisky and Hessen, the state in which it is produced. There are currently 23 distilleries in Germany producing whisky.

Indian whiskies

Indian whisky is an alcoholic beverage that is labelled as "whisky" in India. The vast majority of Indian whisky is distilled from fermented molasses, and as such would be considered a sort of rum outside of the Indian subcontinent. In India, 90% of the "whisky" consumed is molasses based, although India has begun to distill whisky from malt and other grains.

Kasauli Distillery is set in the Himalaya mountains and opened in the late 1820s. The main whisky brand is a single malt named "Solan No. 1". This was named after the town nearby called Solan. It was the best selling Indian whisky till recently, but has declined since the early 1980s because of the stiff competition from the larger distilleries. Other whiskies this distillery produces are Diplomat Deluxe, Colonel's Special, Black Knight and Summer Hall.

Amrut Fusion single malt is distilled by Amrut Distilleries of Bangalore, and has been gaining popularity after winning some awards. In The Whisky Bible 2010, Whisky expert Jim Murray rated the whisky at 97 points and declared it the third best in the world. It is made from a combination of two barleys - Indian barley from from the Punjab and Scottish peated barley.

Irish whiskeys

Various Irish whiskeys

Most Irish whiskeys are distilled three times. Though traditionally distilled using pot stills, column still are now used to produce grain whiskey for blends. By law, Irish whiskey must be produced in Ireland and aged in wooden casks for a period of no less than three years, although in practice it is usually three or four times that period. Unpeated malt is almost always used, the main exception being Connemara Peated Malt whiskey.

There are several types of whiskey common to Ireland: single malt, single grain, blended whiskey and pure pot still whiskey. The designation "pure pot still" as used in Ireland generally refers to whiskey made of 100% barley, mixed malted and unmalted, and distilled in a pot still made of copper. The "green" unmalted barley gives the traditional pure pot still whiskey a spicy, uniquely Irish quality. Like single malt, pure pot still is sold as such or blended with grain whiskey. Usually no real distinction is made between whether a blended whiskey was made from single malt or pure pot still.

Japanese whiskies

The model for Japanese whiskies is the single malt Scotch, although there are also examples of Japanese blended whiskies. The base is a mash of malted barley, dried in kilns fired with a little peat (although considerably less than in Scotland), and distilled using the pot still method. For some time exports of Japanese whisky suffered from the belief in the West that whisky made in the Scotch style, but not produced in Scotland, was inferior, and until fairly recently, the market for Japanese whiskies was almost entirely domestic. In recent years, Japanese whiskies have won prestigious international awards and now enjoy a reputation as a quality product.

Scotch whiskies

Various Scotch whiskies

Scotch whiskies are generally distilled twice, though some are distilled a third time. In 2009 the Bruichladdich distillery released a quadruple-distilled whisky called X4 + 3. It was the first ever official whisky of its type. Scotch Whisky Regulations require anything bearing the label "Scotch" to be distilled in Scotland and matured for a minimum of three years in oak casks, among other, more specific criteria. An age statement on the bottle, in the form of a number, must reflect the age of the youngest Scotch whisky used to produce that product. A whisky with an age statement is known as guaranteed age whisky. Scotch whisky without an age statement may, by law, be as young as three years old.

The basic types of Scotch are malt and grain, which are combined to create blends. Many, though not all, Scotch whiskies use peat smoke to treat their malt, giving Scotch its distinctive smoky flavour. Scotch malt whiskies are divided into five main regions: Highland, Lowland, Islay,Speyside and Campbeltown.

Swedish whiskies

Sweden has a young, but growing whisky industry.
The Mackmyra distillery, started selling its products in 2006.Spirit of Hven started distilling in 2008 with products expected on the market circa 2012. The Smögen distillery in Hunnebostrand on the Swedish west coast started distilling in August 2010, and the Box distillery near Härnösand in northern Sweden are expected to start distilling in the second half of 2010.
Additionally, another half dozen or so future Swedish distilleries are in different levels of preparation.

Welsh whiskies

(Welsh: Wysgi or Wisgi) In 2000, Penderyn Distillery started production of the Penderyn single malt Welsh whisky in Wales, the first Welsh whisky since all production ended in 1894. The first bottles went on sale on 1 March 2004, Saint David's Day, and the whisky is now sold throughout the world. Penderyn Distillery is situated in the Brecon Beacons National Park and is considered the smallest distillery in the world.

Other whiskies

In Brittany, France, five distilleries (Distillerie des Menhirs, Guillon, Glann ar Mor, Kaerilis and Warenghem) produce whisky using techniques similar to those in Scotland.

Manx Spirit from the Isle of Man is, like some Virginia whiskeys in the USA, distilled elsewhere and re-distilled in the country of its nominal "origin".

In the Netherlands there are two distilleries. From Zuidam distillers a single malt called (Millstone), and from the Us Heit Distillery the (Frysk Hynder) single malt.

Recently at least two distilleries in the traditionally brandy-producing Caucasus region announced their plans to enter the Russian domestic market with whiskies. The Stavropol-based Praskoveysky distillery bases its product on Irish technology, while in Kizlyar, Dagestan's "Russian Whisky" announced a Scotch-inspired drink in single malt, blended and wheat varieties.

In Taiwan, the King Car company built a whisky distillery in the city of Yilan, and has recently begun marketing Kavalan Single Malt Whisky.

Names & Spelling:

Much is made of the word's two spellings: whisky and whiskey. There are basically two schools of thought on the issue. One is that the spelling difference is simply a matter of local language convention for the spelling of a word, indicating that the spelling will vary depending on the background or personal preferences of the writer (like the difference between colorand colour or tire and tyre or recognize and recognise), and the other is that the spelling should depend on the style or origin of the spirit that is being described. However, there is general agreement that when quoting the proper name printed on a label, the spelling that is used on the label should not be altered. Some writers will refer to "whisk(e)y" or "whisky/whiskey" to acknowledge the variation.

The spelling whisky (and plural whiskies) is generally used in Canada, Japan, Scotland, and Wales, while whiskey (and plural whiskeys) is more common in Ireland and the United States. However, the usage is not always consistent – for example, some prominent American brands, such as George Dickel, Maker's Mark, and Old Forester (which are all made by different companies), use the 'whisky' spelling on their labels, and the U.S. legal Standards of Identity for Distilled Spirits document also uses the 'whisky' spelling. American brands using the Scottish version of the spelling of “whisky” tend to have been founded by individuals with Scottish anestry or to have a flavor (or flavour) style or marketing strategy that is evocative of Scotch whisky.

"Scotch" is the internationally recognised (or recognized) term for "Scotch whisky". It is rarely used in Scotland, where the drink is called simply "whisky".

Chemistry:

Whiskies and other distilled beverages such as cognac and rum are complex beverages containing a vast range of flavouring compounds, of which some 200 to 300 can be easily detected by chemical analysis. The flavouring chemicals include "carbonyl compounds, alcohols, carboxylic acids and their esters, nitrogen- and sulfur-containing compounds, tanninsand other polyphenolic compounds, terpenes, and oxygen-containing heterocyclic compounds" and esters of fatty acids. The nitrogen compounds include pyridines, picolines andpyrazines.

Flavours from distillation

The flavouring of whisky is partially determined by the presence of congeners and fusel oils. Fusel oils are higher alcohols than ethanol, are mildly toxic, and have a strong, disagreeable smell and taste. An excess of fusel oils in whisky is considered a defect. A variety of methods are employed in the distillation process to remove unwanted fusel oils. Traditionally, American distillers focused on secondary filtration using charcoal, gravel, sand, or linen to remove undesired distillates. Canadian distillers have traditionally employed column stillswhich can be controlled to produce an almost pure (and less flavourful) ethanol known as neutral grain spirit or grain neutral spirit (GNS). Flavour is restored by blending the neutral grain spirits with flavouring whiskies.

Acetals are rapidly formed in distillates and a great many are found in distilled beverages, the most prominent being acetaldehyde diethyl acetal (1,1-diethoxyethane). Among whiskies the highest levels are associated with malt whisky. This acetal is a principal flavour compound in sherry, and contributes fruitiness to the aroma.

The diketone diacetyl (2,3-Butanedione) has a buttery aroma and is present in almost all distilled beverages. Whiskies and cognacs typically contain more of this than vodkas, but significantly less than rums or brandies.

Flavours from oak

Whisky that has been aged in oak barrels gets a number of components from the wood. One of these is cis-3-Methyl-4-octanolide, known as the "whisky lactone" or "quercus lactone", a compound with a strong coconut aroma.

Commercially charred oaks are rich in phenolic compounds. One study identified 40 different phenolic compounds. The coumarin scopoletin is present in whisky, with the highest level reported in Bourbon whiskey.

Flavours and colouring from additives

Depending on the local regulations, additional flavourings and colouring compounds may be added to the whisky. Canadian whisky may contain caramel and flavouring in addition to the distilled mash spirits. Scotch whisky may contain added (E150A) caramel, but no other additives. The addition of flavourings is not allowed in American "straight" whiskey, but is allowed in American blends.

Chill filtration

Whisky is often "chill filtered": chilled to precipitate out fatty acid esters and then filtered to remove them. Most whiskies are bottled this way, unless specified as unchillfiltered or non chill filtered. This is done primarily for cosmetic reasons. Unchillfiltered whisky will often turn cloudy when stored at cool temperatures or when cool water is added to them, and this is perfectly normal.